[Lucy's fatal childbirth? About materno-foetal mortality in the ancient times]. / L'accouchement tragique de Lucy ? À propos de la mortalité maternofœtale de la préhistoire à l'époque médiévale.

OBJECTIVES: Skeletal remains of pregnant woman whit fetus still in the pelvic region are scarce in the archaeological record. We aimed to review the different cases of maternal and fetal death in the ancient times. METHODS: A review of literature using Medline database and Google about mortality during pregnancy in Prehistory, Antiquity and middle age. The following key words were used: ancient times; paleopathology; immature fetus; medieval; pregnancy; mummies; Antiquity; maternal mortality. RESULTS: Thirty articles were found and we added one personal unpublished case. There were 64 female skeletons with mainly infectious abnormalities (10 dental abscesses and 2 pneumoniae) followed by traumatic lesions (2 frontal fractures and 1 femur luxation). There were 48 fetal remains and 3 twins. We noted 8 obstructed labors (3 breech presentations, 4 transverse lies and one possible shoulder dystocia). CONCLUSIONS: The fact that there were only few cases of maternal deaths with fetal remains raises the questions of the cause of death and the relationship between death and obstetric disorders. Beside the underestimation of these archaecological cases, the reasons of both fetal and maternal death must be looking for among several diseases or anomalies of both or of one of them, related with poor environmental conditions (such as malnutrition and high morbidity from infections) and lack of care the mother and fetus need.

The study of dental occlusion in ancient skeletal remains from Mallorca (Spain): A new approach based on dental clinical practice.

Occlusal characteristics, fundamental to assess the presence of malocclusion, have been often unexplored in bioarchaeological analyses. This is largely due to the fragmented condition of the skeletal remains. By applying a method that considers dental and maxillary features useful to evaluate occlusion in ancient fragmentary material, the purpose of this work is to define the occlusal features and explore the causes of malocclusion in a mediaeval population from Mallorca. The findings of this study suggest that normocclusion was present in ca. 60% of the individuals (N=31), and that some characteristics, such as molar relationship, were slightly different from those of modern populations. The analysis of the occlusal features revealed for example that open-bite was absent in 85% of the sample, posterior open-bite was completely absent and overbite and overjet were normal in around 90% of the individuals. Statistically significant correlations between canine and molar relationships and between molar relationship and dental wear of the superior and inferior canines and incisors were observed. In addition, wear could affect the curve of Spee. All these findings strengthen the hypothesis that in ancient times malocclusion was not as generalized as in modern times. Although the factors that lead to malocclusion throughout centuries could have several causes, we suggest that in this population dental wear, which is strongly associated with the diet, was the fundamental causing factor.

A case of semi-combusted pregnant female in the Phoenician-Punic necropolis of Monte Sirai (Carbonia, Sardinia, Italy).

We present a case of a pregnant woman with the fetus skeletal remains in situ, belonging to the Phoenician-Punic necropolis of Monte Sirai (Sardinia, Italy). The burial dates back to the late 6th to early 5th century BCE. Of the unborn fetal cases documented in the literature this is amongst the oldest four and it represents the first documented case of a pregnant woman in the Phoenician and Punic necropolis literature. A physico-chemical investigation of bones combining X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy suggests that the female skeleton and fetus were subjected to an incomplete heat treatment according to a funerary practice, perhaps limited to the period of early 5th century BCE, that appears to be peculiar to this site.

Optimizing specimen processing for ancient soft tissue specimens.

Despite many reports concerning processing of ancient soft tissues, scant attention has been paid to optimizing procedures for processing soft tissues that have been altered by taphonomic processes. To determine the best procedures, we investigated the rehydration solution, time of exposure to the solutions, fixative solution and exposure to heat. Processes were evaluated based on the minimum section thickness, degree of tissue fragmentation, definition of tissue architecture and penetration of stains. We found that in desiccated samples, tissue architecture was optimized by using Ruffer's solution for rehydration and Schaffer's solution as fixative, because these tissues require water restoration within the tissues due to their compacted character. Heating enhanced penetration of dyes in these specimens, which improved diagnosis. Saponified tissues that had suffered extensive decomposition were more labile and required slow water uptake. The best histological sections were obtained using Sandison's solution followed by fixation with formaldehyde and avoiding heat. To obtain the best results with paleohistological specimens, the procedure must be determined by the condition of the sample and by accounting for the nature of its damage.

Aplicaciones de técnicas físico-químicas en Antropología Forense / The application of physico-chemical techniques to Forensic Anthropology

Los efectos del calor extremo sobre los restos óseos es un tema de gran interés para el mundo forense. La literatura en rápido crecimiento en esta área de las ciencias forenses incluye investigaciones experimentales que analizan la dinámica del impacto térmico sobre la estructura del esqueleto y su morfología. Además de los métodos tradicionales de investigación, la aplicación de técnicas químico-físicas como la difracción de rayos X (DRX) y la espectroscopia de infrarrojos por transformada de Fourier (FT-IR) es cada vez más aceptada en distintos contextos forenses. Los campos de aplicación se refieren principalemente a la capacidad para distinguir entre restos humanos quemados y otros materiales, la determinación de la temperatura, el tiempo de combustión y su intensidad en todo el cuerpo, en diversas situaciones como accidentes, suicidios/homicidios y el estudio de la escena del crimen (AU)

The effects of extreme heat on the skeletal remains are a subject of great interest to the forensic world. The rapidly growing literature in this area of forensic science includes experimental investigations that analyze dynamics of thermal impact on the skeletal structure and morphology.In addition to traditional research methods, the application of chemical and physical techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) and, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) is increasingly accepted in forensic contexts. The ability to distinguish between burned human remains and other materials, and the determination of the temperature, the combustion time and intensity throughout the body may be important in various situations such as accidents, suicides / homicides and studying the crime scene (AU)

La antropología forense al servicio de la justicia y la historia: las fosas de la Guerra Civil / Forensic anthropology serving justice and history: the Spanish Civil War mass graves

La antropología forense tiene por objeto tanto la identificación del individuo, como la determinación de la causa y circunstancias de la muerte. En este sentido, la antropología forense es esencial para la recuperación de los restos de personas desaparecidas y que fueron enterrados en fosas comunes durante la Guerra Civil y la dictadura franquista, para su posterior retorno a los familiares. En este trabajo se presentan los resultados de la intervención llevada a cabo en la fosa de Gurb, en la que fueron enterrados cuatro soldados republicanos vecinos de Gavà y cuyos familiares habían solicitado su exhumación. El trabajo multidisciplinar llevado a cabo permitió: 1) recuperar toda la información ante mortem disponible en relación a la fosa y los desaparecidos, 2) recuperar mediante metodología arqueológica y directrices antropológico-forenses los restos de los 13 individuos enterrados en la fosa, y 3) analizar los restos en el laboratorio a través de técnicas antropológicas, forenses, moleculares y de superposición craneofacial. Los resultados permitieron tanto la identificación de las cuatro personas buscadas, como la determinación de las causas y circunstancias de su muerte, relacionadas todas ellas con heridas por arma de fuego, acaecidas en un contexto de batalla (AU)

Forensic Anthropology seeks both to identify the individual, such as determining the cause and circumstances of death. In this sense, forensic anthropology is essential for recovery remains of missing persons who were buried in mass graves during the Spanish Civil War and Franco's dictatorship, for subsequent return to their families. This paper presents the results of work done at the grave of Gurb, where Republican soldiers were buried; four families of Gavà had applied for exhumation of their relatives buried in it. The multidisciplinary work carried out allowed us: 1) to retrieve all available ante mortem information regarding the pit and the missing persons, 2) to recover the remains of 13 individuals buried in the grave by archaeological methods and forensic-anthropological guidelines, and 3) to analyze their remains in the laboratory through anthropological, forensics, molecular and craniofacial superimposition techniques. The results allowed both the identification of the four wanted persons, such as determining the causes and circumstances of his death, in all cases due to battle related trauma, specifically firearm injuries (AU)

Lesiones costales en antropología forense / Rib injuries in forensic anthropology

Los traumatismos torácicos pueden provocar lamuerte de forma directa o indirecta en homicidios, suicidioso accidentes. En antropología forense, la reconstrucciónde los traumatismos torácicos ante la ausenciade tejidos blandos requiere conocimientos adecuadosde los patrones de fractura de la parrilla costal. Los tiposde fractura que observamos en las costillas no están suficientementeexplicados en la literatura médico forenseclásica.Nuestro trabajo se ha centrado en la revisión de laslesiones por arma de fuego, traumatismos contusos y porarma blanca en la zona costal con la finalidad de simplificareste tema(AU)

Chest wall trauma can contribute to death directly orindirectly in homicides, suicides or accidents. In forensicanthropology, the reconstruction of traumatic thoracicevents when soft tissues are absent, requires an adequateunderstanding of ribcage fracture patterns.Fractures types observed in ribs are not explained bycurrent bone literature. Our work has focused onreviewing injuries by gunfire, sharp force trauma and bluntforce injures from ribs in order to simplify this matter(AU)

Marcadores de actividad en restos óseos / Activity markers in skeletal remains

Los marcadores de actividad se definen como cambios de la arquitectura interna y/o externa del hueso, que se desarrollan bajo condiciones de estrés continuado y prolongado derivado de la realización de actividades habituales u ocupacionales. Las evidencias obtenidas a partir de estas marcas esqueléticas constituyen una valiosa fuente de información que permite generar hipótesis sobre determinados antecedentes de la vida de un sujeto, útiles en la individualización de unos restos esqueléticos. Por tanto, el análisis de estos marcadores debe ser considerado como una fase más del proceso de necroidentificación forense

Activity markers are defined as observable changes in the internal and/or external bone architecture which develop under conditions of prolonged and continued stress imposed by habitual or occupational activity. The evidences obtained from these markers are very important information which allows us to make hypothesis about certain aspects of the subject’s life, useful when it comes to individualize skeletal remains. Therefore, the analysis of these markers should be considered as an additional step in the forensic necroidentification

Importancia del estudio antropológico forense para la calificación jurídica de una muerte violenta / Importance of anthropological forensic study to the juridical qualification of a violent death

La identificación de un cadáver en "mal estado" puede ser complicada a causa de los procesos tafonómicos y putrefactivos que ha sufrido. La combinación de las técnicas de autopsia clásicas, específicas de un cadáver reciente, además de los análisis en antropología forense son fundamentales para determinar el tipo de lesiones, mecanismo de producción, evolución y, como en este caso, para la calificación jurídica. Presentamos el caso de un cadáver no identificado y parcialmente incinerado aparecido en un descampado. El examen externo evidenció la coexistencia de zonas de carbonización, momificación, reducción esquelética y descomposición activa. La autopsia reveló la existencia de puntos de sutura a nivel abdominal como signos individualizadores y como signos de violencia un traumatismo craneoencefálico múltiple. Los restos fueron esqueletizados y se efectuó un estudio antropológico y odontológico. A partir de estos análisis se obtuvo información sobre la edad, sexo, talla además de rasgos morfológicos y odontológicos particulares. Estos hallazgos, además de los proporcionados por la autopsia, se contrastaron con la información de la policía sobre individuos desaparecidos y finalmente pudo identificarse. El patrón de fractura craneal permitió secuenciar el orden de las lesiones que fueron atribuidos a la acción repetitiva de un objeto contundente como un martillo. La cronología lesional, basada en el patrón de interrupción de las fracturas craneales irradiadas, permitió asegurar que el primer impacto del martillo fue en la zona posterior del cráneo y sirvió de base para la calificación de traición como agravante de la pena solicitada por el Ministerio Fiscal para el homicida

Identification of a corpse in a bad condition can be complicated due to taphonomical processes and active decomposition on human remains. The combination of classical autopsy techniques, characteristic of the study of a recent corpse, and legal anthropology analysis, is fundamental in order to determine the type of lesions, the mechanism, its evolution and, as in this case, to allow a juridical qualification. In this paper we describe the case of an unidentified corpse, partially burned that appeared in the open air in a waste area. External examination showed the coexistence of carbonization, mummification, skeletal reduction and active decomposition zones. Autopsy showed the existence of stitches at abdominal level as an individual trait and, as signs of violence, a multiple craneal traumatism. A skeleton has been made with the human remains and an anthropological and odontological study was carried out. Starting from these analysis we obtained information about the age, sex, height and also peculiar morphological and odontological traits. These researches, in the light of the autopsy's results, have been compared with the information about missing people supplied by police. Finally, the identification was possible. The pattern of the skull's fracture allowed to arrange in sequence the lesions and to consider them to the repeated action of a blunt instrument such as a hammer. The chronology of the lesions, based on the pattern of interruption of irradiated fractures, permit to assure that the first hammer's blow was made on the cráneoum's rear. This has been qualified as a treacherous act and increased the murderer's penalty requested by the public attorney

Ilium growth study: applicability in sex and age diagnosis.

The use of coxal elements for age and sex diagnosis from the skeleton is the primary and most widespread way of bringing us closer to the identity of dead individuals in archaeological and certain forensic scenarios. Diagnosis in sub-adults, especially in fetus and infant age, is not clear; and further studies are needed. This work presents the analysis of the growth of six variables in the ilium, from birth to 97 years of age, in order to evaluate its significance and its capacity for age and sex determination during and after growth. The materials used were 327 specimens from four documented Western European collections. Growth curves were calculated for the three classical variables of the ilium (width, length and index) and three new variables of the acetabulum area (horizontal and vertical diameter of the ilium acetabular surface and the ilium acetabular index). None of the curves showed a lineal growth, except those of the horizontal diameter of the ilium acetabular surface for the male series. The ilium width has the most complicated growth and it is explained by a four-degree polynomial. All the variables studied can be useful for adult sex discrimination with the exception of the ilium width and ilium acetabular index. Furthermore, the most useful variables for subadult and adult age estimation in archaeological samples, as well as in forensic samples, are the absolute measurements (ilium length and width, horizontal and vertical diameter of the ilium acetabular surface); however, the ilium width is the best variable, as this can be applied to all growth ages using both sexual series together up to 20 years of age.

Bifid mandibular condyle: archaeological case report of a rare anomaly.

In this paper, an archaeological case of unilateral bifid mandibular condyle is presented. This uncommon anomaly is characterized by a division of the mandibular condylar head. In this case, the left condyle was divided into two articulating surfaces oriented mediolaterally; two articular facets on the anterior wall of the glenoid fossa for the double condyle were observed. The morphological and radiological analysis do not show any evidence of injuries or degenerative pathology. Taking into account the two main causes of bifid condyle suggested in the literature (traumatic and developmental), an embryopathy by teratogenic agents is proposed as a possible aetiology of the bifid condyle reported here.

Sex and age diagnosis by ischium morphometric analysis.

The growth of four variables of the ischium was analysed by polynomial regression in order to evaluate its significance and its capacity for age and sex determination during and after growth. The material used was 327 specimens ranging from birth to 97 years of age from four documented west European collections. The growth curves were calculated for ischium length and three new variables of the acetabular surface (horizontal diameter of ischium acetabular surface, vertical diameter of ischium acetabular surface and ischium acetabular index). All curves, except those of the female series of vertical diameter of ischium acetabular surface and its index, showed a lineal growth corresponding to vertical variables. All variables studied, except the ischium acetabular index, can be used variables for adult sexual discrimination. Furthermore, ischium length and the horizontal and vertical diameters of the acetabular surface can be useful for sub-adult age determination in archaeological samples, as well as in forensic samples. However, the ischium length is the best variable, as it can be applied to all the growth ages.

The acetabular point: a morphological and ontogenetic study.

The acetabular point was analysed by studying human pelvic bones from 326 individuals ranging from newborns to age 97 y. The bones were categorised into 3 groups according to the degree of fusion for the 3 elements of the pelvis: nonfused (59), semifused (5) and fused (262). The acetabular point in immature pelvic bones is clearly represented by the point of the fusion lines for each bony element at the level of the acetabular fossa. In adult pelvic bones the acetabular fossa has an irregular clover-leaf shape, the superior lobe being smaller than the anterior and posterior lobes. Cross-sectional analysis of acetabular morphology suggested that the acetabular point in adult pelvic bones is always represented by the indentation between the superior and the anterior lobes of the acetabular fossa.

Authenticating ancient human mitochondrial DNA.

The use of ancient DNA techniques in human studies has been hampered by problems of contamination with modern human DNA. The main problem has been that the object of study belongs to the same species as the observer, and the complete elimination of the contamination risk is seemingly unlikely. Contamination has even been detected in the most specialized laboratories in this field. In these kinds of studies it is therefore very important to detect contamination and to distinguish contaminants from authentic results. Here, we report the use of a strategy to authenticate the identity of ancient mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), based on the previously established relationship between D-loop sequence substitutions and haplogroup-specific restriction site changes. Forty-four individuals from a 16th-century necropolis were analyzed, from which 28 control region sequences were obtained. These sequences were preclassified into haplogroups, according to the observed motifs. Subsequently, the DNA extracts from which the sequences were obtained, along with independent extracts of subsets of the same individuals, were subjected to restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis to compare and corroborate the results. Using this approach, 24 sequences were authenticated, while two were discarded because of result mismatches. The final distribution of the haplogroups in the sample, and the differences in the sequences, are two additional criteria of authentication.

Sex assessment on the basis of long bone circumference.

Discriminant functions have long been used to classify individuals into groups according to the dimensions of their bones. Although lengths, widths, and diameters have been extensively used, the circumferences have not been adequately validated. In this work, the importance that the circumferences of long bones can have in assigning the sex of ancient human remains is demonstrated. The functions produced by using just one circumference achieved accuracies higher than 80%, and circumference at the radial tuberosity of the radius is able to classify 92.8% of skeletons from the Late Roman site of Mas Rimbau/Mas Mallol (Spain). When functions are produced by using more than one circumference, they can achieve the uppermost classification attained in this sample. The functions also showed that the arm circumference functions are more useful than those of the leg, probably because male individuals of the population had greater mechanical stress than did females. The classification percentages, as well as other statistical values for the functions, demonstrated the great ability of long bone circumferences in helping to classify the sex of individuals of other sites of the Mediterranean area besides the ones examined in this study.

Looking into the demography of an iron age population in the western Mediterranean. I. Mortality.

In this paper, we attempt to reconstruct the mortality pattern of the population buried in S'Illot des Porros (Majorca), an Iron Age necropolis in the western Mediterranean, by means of paleodemographic analysis. The skeletal sample consists of 285 individuals, 93 subadults (under 20 years old) and 192 adults. The aim of this study is twofold: first, to identify and to evaluate the structural anomalies of the skeletal sample, and second, to obtain a possible and realistic description of the biological dynamics of this population, with special reference to its mortality pattern. The study uses current demographic methodology and several demographic models (for comparison). An abridged life table was built to estimate the mortality parameters. To evaluate the likelihood of the estimated data, an indirect analysis, which consisted of a comparison of our results with different population models (Weiss [1973] American Antiquity 38; Coale and Demeny [1996] Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Populations. Princeton: Princeton University Press; Ledermann [1969] Nouvelles tables-types de mortalité. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France), was carried out. An important bias was identified in the case of children, mostly affecting infants but also children between the ages of 1 and 5. This was interpreted as a census error due to taphonomic reasons and to an excluding differential funeral rite. A life expectancy at birth of approximately 28 years was estimated from the observed data. When this bias was removed, the estimated life expectancy at birth dropped to 23 years. The use of the Brass logit system allowed us to sketch a possible mortality profile for this population: low life expectancy, high infant mortality and hard life conditions, which were the cause of the low levels of survivorship in old ages. Am J Phys Anthropol 110:285-301, 1999.

Positioning of the autochthonous Aran Valley population among Basque and Pyrenean people by means of ABO, Rh (D) and Duffy blood group determinations.

A total of 205 unrelated autochthonous individuals of both sexes from the population of the Aran Valley in the central Pyrenees were tested for ABO, Rh and duffy blood groups. This population is of interest because of its relative geographical and historical isolation and its specific peculiarities, such as its own language. The results show a good correlation between the principal component analysis graphic and the geographic positions of the Basque and Pyrenean populations with which the Aranese population is compared.

Variability of the Rh system in a central Pyrenean population (Aran Valley).

This work describes the results of a survey on the Rhesus system carried out in the autochthonous population of Aran Valley, a small and rather isolated region on the Northern side of the Central Pyrenees. Also, a comparison is made with other geographically and historically related populations in order to discuss the data in terms of the historical origin of this population. The data obtained shows a good agreement between observed and expected values in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The Aranese population also reveals some peculiarities concerning some haplotypes. The comparison with European and non European Mediterranean populations shows a clear genetic distance from Basque populations, and a relative proximity with presumably Celtic ones.